Kohlberg's theory can be broken down into three different stages of moral development that humans go through:
1. Pre-conventional Morality 
2. Conventional Morality
3. Post-conventional Morality 

Stages of Moral Reasoning 

To assess moral development, Lawrence Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas, which are hypothetical scenarios like the well-known Heinz dilemma. The primary focus of his analysis was not the specific choice made (e.g., 'yes' or 'no'), but rather the underlying reasoning and justification for that choice. This rationale is what Kohlberg used to determine an individual's stage of moral reasoning.

Moral Dilemmas in Kohlberg's Theory

A key consideration in Kohlberg's theory is that an individual's moral reasoning is not always consistent. A person capable of sophisticated, post-conventional thinking in one scenario may employ simpler, pre-conventional reasoning in another, suggesting that the context of a situation can influence the moral stage applied.

Situational Influence on Moral Reasoning

While many psychologists accept Kohlberg's theory, they often highlight a critical distinction between moral reasoning and actual moral behavior. There can be a significant gap between what a person says they would do in a moral dilemma and their actions in a real-life situation, a concept sometimes summarized as not "walking the walk."

Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Behavior

Lawrence Kohlberg suggested that there were gender-based differences in moral progression, positing that men were more likely than women to advance past stage four of moral development. Based on his framework, he concluded that women's moral reasoning abilities appeared to be deficient in comparison.

Kohlberg's View on Gender in Moral Development

Carol Gilligan is a psychologist who initially worked as a research assistant for Lawrence Kohlberg. She became a prominent critic of his theory of moral development, arguing against its perceived gender bias, and subsequently developed her own influential theories on the subject, as detailed in her book 'In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development'.

Carol Gilligan

Proposed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory builds upon Jean Piaget's work on cognitive development. It posits that moral reasoning evolves through a distinct series of stages, much like cognitive abilities. Kohlberg developed this framework by presenting moral dilemmas to individuals of various ages and analyzing the logic behind their answers to determine their stage of moral reasoning. The theory suggests a progression from an egocentric moral perspective to one that encompasses the well-being of others and broader societal principles.

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One of the key ways in which we can observe the differences between psychology and philosophy as disciplines is in the way they interpret and discuss morality and ethics. Philosophy tries to examine what makes an action moral or immoral; it takes a direct view and position on ethics. Psychology does not take any direct views. It only comments on how morality has shifted throughout time, and how our moral stances change as we age, objectively. It does not comment on whether actions are morally good or bad. 

Philosophy and Psychology: How Each Discipline Interprets Morality and Ethics

Piaget's theory of cognitive development posits that our ability to think and reason evolves through a series of distinct stages, each approximately associated with a specific age range. This theory is a key example of the discontinuity approach, suggesting that as children move from one stage to the next, there is a significant and qualitative shift in their cognitive processes. Piaget viewed thinking as a central element of development and believed children are naturally inquisitive learners whose reasoning differs from that of adults.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was an American psychologist renowned for his theory on moral development. His work significantly extended Jean Piaget's stage-based theory of cognitive development, applying a similar structural approach to the domain of moral reasoning.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Developmental psychology offers several major theoretical frameworks to explain how individuals grow and develop into healthy adults. These include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory, which focuses on stages related to bodily erogenous zones; Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, which builds on Freud's work but emphasizes the role of social interactions in shaping identity; Jean Piaget's cognitive theory, which describes the stages of children's thinking and reasoning; and Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which posits that moral thinking evolves through levels that are dependent on cognitive development.

Overview of Major Developmental Theories

Cherry, K. (2022, November 7). Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-development-2795071
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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Reference

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

- Assimilation
- Accommodation
- Equilibration

Sources of Continuity in Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 

- Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
- Preoperational (2-7 years)
- Concrete Operational (7-11)
- Formal Operations (11+ years)

Piaget's 4 Stages of Discontinuous Child Cognitive Development

Change in schemata (mental models) based on intake of new information.

Accommodation

In Piaget's theory, assimilation is the cognitive process of incorporating new information or experiences into pre-existing mental models (schemata). This occurs when the new information is consistent with or comparable to what an individual already knows.

Cognitive Assimilation

A prototype is the most representative or ideal example of a concept that the brain uses as a technique for organizing information. An individual's prototype for a concept is often shaped by their early and personal experiences. For instance, one's mental image of a 'dog' is likely influenced by the breed of their first pet.

Prototype in Information Organization

Natural concepts are mental categories formed organically through personal experiences. These experiences can be either direct, such as first-hand sensory observations and physical interactions, or indirect, such as acquiring knowledge through media like books and films. In both cases, the conceptual understanding is constructed from real-world experiences.

Natural Concepts

An artificial concept is a mental category defined by a specific and unchanging set of characteristics that must be formally learned. Unlike natural concepts formed through experience, these concepts are based on rigid rules. Examples include the properties of geometric shapes, such as a square having four equal sides and four right angles, and mathematical formulas like the equation for area.

Artificial Concepts

Models that organize concepts through entities and relationships but do not compute anything.

Conceptual model

Encompasses all of the possible examples of a concept. For example the category of dogs includes poodles, pugs and bulldogs. 

Concepts Studied in Formal Science

According to Piaget, schemata are mental models or concepts that individuals develop to categorize and interpret information from the world around them. By adulthood, people have created these frameworks for nearly every aspect of their experience.

Schema (Piaget)

A significant criticism of Piaget's theory stems from contemporary research supporting a more continuous model of development. This view challenges Piaget's concept of discrete, qualitative stages, suggesting instead that cognitive growth is a gradual and ongoing process rather than a series of abrupt shifts.

Critique of Piaget's Discrete Stages: The Continuous Development View

Research has also challenged the timeline proposed in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Many contemporary studies suggest that children achieve key cognitive milestones at an earlier age than Piaget described, indicating he may have underestimated their abilities at various stages.

Critique of Piaget's Timeline: Earlier Achievement of Cognitive Milestones

Proposed as a fifth stage beyond Piaget's formal operational stage, postformal thought represents a more advanced form of adult cognition. Thinking in this stage is characterized by the integration of logic with emotion, leading to decisions based on specific situations and circumstances. Unlike the more absolute logic of formal operations, postformal problem-solving is flexible and context-dependent. Adults think more deeply about complex life areas like relationships and work, and they draw upon past experiences to inform their solutions to new problems.

Postformal Stage of Cognitive Development

A critical aspect of studying developmental psychology involves comparing and contrasting the primary theories of development. This analysis includes evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of foundational frameworks like Freud's psychosexual theory, Erikson's psychosocial theory, Piaget's cognitive theory, and Kohlberg's moral development theory.

Comparison of Major Developmental Theories

According to Sigmund Freud, personality develops during early childhood and is profoundly shaped by these formative experiences. He viewed development as a discontinuous process, proposing that individuals must pass through a series of psychosexual stages. Central to this theory is the idea that a child's pleasure-seeking urges are focused on different erogenous zones at each stage. Freud believed that if a child lacks proper nurturance and parenting during a particular stage, they can become fixated, which influences their personality and behavior in adulthood.

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

Erikson's psychosocial development theory suggests that personality development is a lifelong journey influenced more by social interactions than by sexual drives. According to this theory, individuals are motivated by a need to achieve competence in different aspects of their lives. This development unfolds through eight stages, where social experiences continuously shape one's sense of self, known as ego identity.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

A psychologist is studying an adolescent who is struggling with questions like "Who am I?" and is trying out different social roles and styles to find a sense of self. This psychologist's work is most aligned with the core principles of which developmental perspective?

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