Prototype

Larger more general categories and concepts are at the top and flow into smaller more specific subcategories and concepts creating a hierarchy.

Hierarchical organization

People can have brain damage where their memory is impaired, but only when trying to identify certain types of categories. For example, some patients with brain damage from encephalitis were able to remember non-animal objects (i.e. furniture and tools) but were not able to identify animals.

Category-specific memory impairment 

One way to categorize things is to separate them into artifacts (non-living) and living things.

Artifacts and Living things

- Sensory-functional (S-F) hypothesis
- Semantic category approach
- Multiple factor approach
- Crowding
- Embodied approach

Hypotheses about knowledge of categories and concepts in the brain

A person is trying to mentally group the following items: a car, a bus, a bicycle, and a skateboard. Which of the following statements best explains why 'Vehicles' is a more cognitively useful category for these items than 'Objects with wheels'?

The cognitive process by which concepts are sorted into categories. This process structures our experiences and enables us to give them greater personal meaning.

Categorization

Encompasses all of the possible examples of a concept. For example the category of dogs includes poodles, pugs and bulldogs. 

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Characteristics of the functions that occur in different environments such as:
- Schema

Semantic regularities

Remembering is not simply reproduction, but construction. Frederic Bartlett proposed that during our experiences, we gain structures of knowledge called “schemas,” which we use to reconstruct and infer when retrieving memories. Research has shown that when schemas are activated, people can make more inferences in reconstruction of memories.

The Inferential Process in Memory

Concepts are mental categories used to group and organize various types of information, such as linguistic data, images, ideas, and memories. They function as cognitive structures or 'big ideas' that are formed by observing, categorizing, and combining specific details. This organizational system allows the mind to perceive relationships between different elements of experience, making information more organized and accessible. Concepts are influenced by semantic memory and are integral to every aspect of life, being particularly noticeable in educational settings where they are explicitly taught.

Concept

Piaget's theory of cognitive development posits that our ability to think and reason evolves through a series of distinct stages, each approximately associated with a specific age range. This theory is a key example of the discontinuity approach, suggesting that as children move from one stage to the next, there is a significant and qualitative shift in their cognitive processes. Piaget viewed thinking as a central element of development and believed children are naturally inquisitive learners whose reasoning differs from that of adults.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Goldstein, E. B. (2014). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience. Nelson Education.


Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

A schema is a mental construct that serves as a cognitive framework for organizing knowledge. It consists of a cluster of interconnected concepts based on prior experiences, as originally proposed by Bartlett in 1932. Schemata is the plural form of schema.

Schema

Models that organize concepts through entities and relationships but do not compute anything.

Conceptual model

A prototype is the most representative or ideal example of a concept that the brain uses as a technique for organizing information. An individual's prototype for a concept is often shaped by their early and personal experiences. For instance, one's mental image of a 'dog' is likely influenced by the breed of their first pet.

Prototype in Information Organization

Natural concepts are mental categories formed organically through personal experiences. These experiences can be either direct, such as first-hand sensory observations and physical interactions, or indirect, such as acquiring knowledge through media like books and films. In both cases, the conceptual understanding is constructed from real-world experiences.

Natural Concepts

Artificial Concepts

- Information
- Mathematics
- Statistics
- Computing
- Logic
- Artificial Intelligence
- Game Theory
- Systems Theory
- Decision Theory
- Theoretical Linguistics 

Concepts Studied in Formal Science

A concept represents a broad mental category for grouping similar items, ideas, or events. In contrast, a prototype is the single most representative or ideal example of that concept, serving as a mental benchmark for categorization. For example, while the concept of 'bird' includes penguins and ostriches, a robin is a more common prototype.

Distinction Between Concepts and Prototypes

In psychology, concepts are often classified as either natural or artificial. Natural concepts, such as 'snow', are formed organically through direct or indirect real-world experiences and observations. In contrast, artificial concepts are defined by a specific and rigid set of rules or characteristics that must be formally learned, such as the mathematical definition of a 'square'.

Distinction Between Natural and Artificial Concepts

To manage the vast amount of information it processes, the mind can be compared to a 'file cabinet.' In this analogy, concepts serve as the individual files, providing a system for organizing and storing information.

The Mind as a 'File Cabinet' Analogy for Information Organization

Concepts are developed through a cognitive process that involves observing specific details from our experiences, then categorizing and combining these details to create broader cognitive structures or 'big ideas'.

Formation of Concepts

The primary function of concepts is to help individuals organize information in their minds, making it more accessible. By grouping experiences, concepts enable people to identify and understand the relationships between different elements of their experiences.

Function of Concepts in Cognition

Concepts can be categorized based on their level of abstraction. Abstract concepts, such as 'justice,' are complex and not directly tied to physical objects, whereas concrete concepts, like 'types of birds,' refer to tangible or observable entities.

Abstract vs. Concrete Concepts

Concepts can be distinguished by their scope of understanding. Shared concepts, such as 'tolerance,' are widely agreed upon within a culture or society through prolonged use. In contrast, personal concepts are individualized and unique to a person's experiences, such as their idea of an 'ideal friend' or specific 'family birthday traditions.'

Shared vs. Personal Concepts

Concepts are integral to all facets of human experience, influencing everything from simple daily routines to the complex, guiding principles that structure societal systems like governments.

Ubiquity of Concepts

A person who has only ever seen and learned about small, domesticated dogs (like Chihuahuas and Poodles) visits a dog park for the first time. There, they see a Great Dane, an Irish Wolfhound, and a Golden Retriever. Despite the vast differences in size, coat, and shape, the person immediately identifies them all as 'dogs.' Based on the principles of how the mind organizes information, analyze the cognitive process that allows the person to correctly categorize all these different animals.

Organizing a New Experience

- Assimilation
- Accommodation
- Equilibration

Sources of Continuity in Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 

- Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
- Preoperational (2-7 years)
- Concrete Operational (7-11)
- Formal Operations (11+ years)

Piaget's 4 Stages of Discontinuous Child Cognitive Development

Change in schemata (mental models) based on intake of new information.

Accommodation

In Piaget's theory, assimilation is the cognitive process of incorporating new information or experiences into pre-existing mental models (schemata). This occurs when the new information is consistent with or comparable to what an individual already knows.

Cognitive Assimilation

According to Piaget, schemata are mental models or concepts that individuals develop to categorize and interpret information from the world around them. By adulthood, people have created these frameworks for nearly every aspect of their experience.

Schema (Piaget)

A significant criticism of Piaget's theory stems from contemporary research supporting a more continuous model of development. This view challenges Piaget's concept of discrete, qualitative stages, suggesting instead that cognitive growth is a gradual and ongoing process rather than a series of abrupt shifts.

Critique of Piaget's Discrete Stages: The Continuous Development View

Research has also challenged the timeline proposed in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Many contemporary studies suggest that children achieve key cognitive milestones at an earlier age than Piaget described, indicating he may have underestimated their abilities at various stages.

Critique of Piaget's Timeline: Earlier Achievement of Cognitive Milestones

Proposed as a fifth stage beyond Piaget's formal operational stage, postformal thought represents a more advanced form of adult cognition. Thinking in this stage is characterized by the integration of logic with emotion, leading to decisions based on specific situations and circumstances. Unlike the more absolute logic of formal operations, postformal problem-solving is flexible and context-dependent. Adults think more deeply about complex life areas like relationships and work, and they draw upon past experiences to inform their solutions to new problems.

Postformal Stage of Cognitive Development

Proposed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory builds upon Jean Piaget's work on cognitive development. It posits that moral reasoning evolves through a distinct series of stages, much like cognitive abilities. Kohlberg developed this framework by presenting moral dilemmas to individuals of various ages and analyzing the logic behind their answers to determine their stage of moral reasoning. The theory suggests a progression from an egocentric moral perspective to one that encompasses the well-being of others and broader societal principles.

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