Ti plasmids from *Agrobacterium tumefaciens* are often used as shuttle vectors for incorporating genes into plants. *Agrobacterium tumefaciens* can transfer their DNA to plant cells which results in tumors. Researchers can use this in labs to move DNA between eukaryotic cells as well.

Tumor-inducing (Ti) Plasmids

Shuttle vectors are plasmids that can be transfected between bacteria and eukaryotic cells. 

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- Electroporation
- Microinjection
- Gene Guns
- Shuttle Vectors
- Viral Vectors

Techniques for Transfection in Eukaryotic Cells

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Eukaryotic cells can be transfected by electric pulses that disrupt the cell membrane to create pores where genes can be introduced. A positive charge is also applied inside the cell to pull in DNA.

Eukaryotic Electroporation

Recombinant DNA can be injected into the eukaryotic cells directly by using a microinjection needle.

Microinjection

Microcarrier particles (ex. gold, tungsten) are coated with recombinant DNA. A pressurized helium pulse or electric discharge is used to deliver the DNA-coated particles at a high velocity through the cell membrane of target cells. The gene gun can also be used to penetrate plant cell walls.

Gene gun

Shuttle Vectors 

Viral vectors use inactive versions of viruses to deliver genetic material into cells, taking advantage of viruses' ability to easily enter cells. They are the most common vector type in gene therapy because they produce long-term, high level of gene expression. Examples include: adeno-associated viral vectors (AAVs), adenoviral vectors (AdVs), and lentiviral vectors (LVVs).

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