- Origins of the spacing effect (early literature)
- Displays of spacing effect in different domains
- Spacing v. Massing

Types of references on the spacing effect

The spacing effect has been shown to improve long-term recall in a variety of domains such as: 
- Conditioning (even in non-human animals)
- Verbal learning
- Motor learning
- Learning educational material

Scope of the spacing effect (different domains)

Spacing has shown to improve long-term recall more than massing by many studies. Some people however (such as E.Z. Rothkopf during in September of 1977), have posited that massing is better mode of studying when dealing with problems of induction. Kornell, N., & Bjork (2008) presented compelling evidence against this claim (spacing is also better for induction).

Effects of Spacing compared to Massing

The two main variables influencing the spacing effect are the spacing interval (lag) and the retention interval (test delay).

Spacing effect variables

A memory strategy where one associates multiple items with each other by using imagery, sentence generation, or other strategies (e.g. dog and spoon).

Mediators

Spacing out study sessions over time rather than cramming in one night has been found to be highly effective, especially in long-term retention of information.

Rated as high utility. It has wide generalization, is easy to implement and has been found to effectively boost academic performance.


Distributed Practice (aka Spacing)

Long-term recall is improved when studying is broken up into many short sessions rather than long concentrated ones (memory consolidation is improved). 

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

The process of memory going from an unstable state to a more stable, permanent one. 

Memory Consolidation

After being exposed to a stimuli, subjects are asked to report back what they observed.

Recall

A learning task that requires a considerable but desirable amount of effort, thereby improving long-term performance.

Examples:

- Interleaving Materials
- Spacing Studying
- Generation Effect
- Retrieval practice (testing)
- Varying Study Conditions

Desirable Difficulties

High utility learning strategies have generalization results, meaning that they benefit many students of different ages and abilities. Research has also shown they are effective in boosting academic performance
- Practice Testing
- Distributed Practice (Spacing)

High utility learning strategies are recommended for all students


High Utility Learning Strategies

Goldstein, E. B. (2014). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience. Nelson Education.


Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience

Melton, A. W. (1970). The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9(5), 596-606.

The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory

Hintzman, D. L. (1974). Theoretical implications of the spacing effect.

Theoretical implications of the spacing effect

Glenberg, A. M. (1979). Component-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition. Memory & Cognition, 7(2), 95-112.

Component-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition

The major method of consolidation. The process where the hippocampus replays events associated with a memory.

Reactivation

- The standard model of consolidation
- Multiple trace model of consolidation

Memory consolidation models

- Synaptic consolidation (late-phase long-term potentiation)
- Systems consolidation
- Reconsolidation

Memory consolidation processes

Spacing effect

Memory is most vivid and enduring when the memory takes place during a period of rapid change and is followed up with long-lasting stability (leads to better encoding/consolidation).

Cognitive hypothesis

It is the opposite of spacing: studying in long concentrated sessions rather than many short ones.

Massing effect

Once information reaches long-term memory, it must be consolidated. This consolidation process occurs at two distinct stages: at the synaptic level, which takes a few hours, and into the broader memory system, which can take weeks or longer.

Levels of Memory Consolidation

- Free recall
- Cued recall
- Change detection
- Digit span
- Repeated recall

Types of recall

A curve that displays how well respondents recall words depending on how long ago they were displayed.

Serial position curve 

Participants are presented with pairs of words (house-car, person-hat). Later they are given one of the words and asked to recall the word that was paired with it.

Paired-associate learning

- "Comparing effects of different writing activities on reading comprehension: A meta-analysis"
- "Sources of variance in reading comprehension research: The role of measures and interventions"
- "Understanding the cognitive processes involved in writing to learn" 
- "Trends in research on writing as a learning activity"
- "A comparison of techniques for measuring sensemaking and learning within participant‐generated summaries"

Literature on the Effects of Writing on Reading Comprehension Recall

The ability to recall information from short-term memory can be influenced by the nature of the stimuli. Generally, recall is more accurate for random numbers compared to random letters. Furthermore, information processed through hearing (acoustic encoding) tends to be recalled slightly better than information processed through sight (visual encoding).

Factors Influencing Short-Term Recall

Long term retention improves when you generate your own questions and answers rather than getting presented with them. The Generation Effect also explains why reading/highlighting are not very effective compared to generating new materials.

Generation Effect

Interleaving refers to studying different concepts in a single period of time. Although it may seem more difficult at the time of studying, interleaving information during study time improves long term retention of the materials. 

Example: When studying for a cumulative final, it may seem easy to study a single chapter each day leading up to the exam. However, for long term retention, you should study parts of multiple chapter each day, thus interleaving the topics.

Interleaving Study Materials

Information can become associated with the context and conditions of study sessions. Thus, varying study conditions will improve later recall. To better retain information, it is important to alter aspects of studying.

Examples of variation:

-environment

-duration

-type of study (flashcards, group work, etc.)

Vary Study Conditions

Desirable Difficulties References

The cognitive bases of desirable difficulties: memory and metacognition  

Whether or not students decide to engage in learning processes such as desirable difficulties greatly depends on how motivated they are to do so. This motivation can be influenced by a number of factors, including:
- memory of prior experiences
- task outcome expectancy/value
- achievement goal orientation
- affective state
- consequences on grades
- beliefs of competency 
- how the task is framed

Motivation and desirable difficulties: Variables effecting self-regulatory learning processes

Studying by practice tests improves encoding into long term memory more than rereading passages (while there is no difference in short term understanding).
- using tests as learning events 
- question asking
- flashcards

Retrieval practice ( testing effect )

Students take a mock exam with similar material to test their knowledge.

Rated as high utility. Practice testing is broadly applicable to types of material, and ages and abilities of learners. Moreover, it is one of the least time-consuming habits and evidence shows that practice testing is very effective in boosting academic performance.


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