Variable reinforcement, as a behavioral economics principles, was not observed in any health and fitness applications (among the Top 50 health/fitness mobile apps in 2019).

Variable Reinforcement in Health/Fitness Applications

Gambling, particularly with slot machines, is a prime example of a variable ratio reinforcement schedule. The player's behavior is reinforced by intermittent, unpredictable wins, which encourages them to continue playing despite accumulating losses. As B.F. Skinner observed, gambling establishments leverage this principle by returning a portion of a patron's money on a variable-ratio schedule. This method is highly effective at compelling patrons to continue spending, achieving a similar outcome to them simply handing over money with no return.

Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement: Gambling

When comparing reinforcement schedules, the variable ratio schedule is notable for being the most effective at generating a high rate of response and the most resilient against extinction. Conversely, the fixed interval schedule is considered the least productive in terms of response rate and the most susceptible to rapid extinction once reinforcement is withdrawn.

Comparison of Reinforcement Schedules by Productivity and Extinction Resistance

The effects of different reinforcement schedules can be visualized on a graph plotting the cumulative number of responses against time. On such a graph, ratio schedules (Variable and Fixed) exhibit steep slopes, indicating high response rates, while interval schedules (Variable and Fixed) show more moderate slopes. Variable schedules produce steady, relatively straight response lines. In contrast, fixed schedules create distinct patterns: the fixed ratio schedule is marked by a brief pause after each reinforcement before responding resumes at a high rate, creating a 'stair-step' pattern. The fixed interval schedule produces a 'scalloped' curve, where the response rate is low immediately after reinforcement and gradually increases as the next reinforcement time approaches.

Graphical Representation of Reinforcement Schedules

A child's tantrums can be unintentionally reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule. If a parent sometimes gives in to the tantrum (the occasional reward), the child learns that the behavior might eventually be successful. This unpredictability makes the tantrum behavior very persistent and difficult to extinguish, as the child will continue the behavior in hopes of receiving the reward.

Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement: Child's Tantrums

B.F. Skinner was so confident in the power of the variable-ratio reinforcement schedule that he claimed he could condition a pigeon to become a 'pathological gambler.' While this illustrates the profound effect of this schedule, recent research on rats has challenged the idea that variable-ratio schedules alone are sufficient to cause pathological gambling, suggesting a more complex interplay with factors like brain chemistry.

Skinner's Claim on Pigeons and Pathological Gambling and Its Limitations

A manager wants to implement a reward system to encourage employees to complete a repetitive data entry task. Which of the following reward systems is most likely to result in a high, steady rate of work that is also very resistant to stopping, even if the rewards become infrequent?

In a variable ratio reinforcement schedule, a reward is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule is highly effective at maintaining behavior due to the uncertainty of reinforcement, which encourages a high, steady rate of response. It is considered the most powerful type of partial reinforcement, making behaviors extremely persistent and resistant to extinction, even during long periods without reward. This persistence is because the occasional reinforcement makes it very difficult to stop the behavior, as seen in examples like gambling or a child's tantrums when a parent occasionally gives in.

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- Continuous Reinforcement
- Fixed Interval
- Fixed Ratio
- Variable Interval
- Variable Ratio

Schedules of Reinforcement

- Continuous reinforcement
- Partial reinforcement
- Fixed interval
- Variable interval
- Fixed ratio
- Variable ratio

Types of Reinforcement Schedules

Wikipedia

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Intermittent reinforcement is the inconsistent response to behaviors (sometimes following a behavior with a reward and sometimes not rewarding). Skinner believed that this type of reinforcement would make it unlikely for behaviors to go extinct.

Intermittent Reinforcement

Variable Interval - Based on the time there is a reward, but it is not always a consistant amount of time.

Fixed Interval - Based on the time there is a reward, and the reward occurs after the same length of time.

Variable Ratio - Based on the behavior performed there is a reward, but the reward is not always consistant after a number of behaviors.

Fixed Ratio - Based on the behavior performed there is a reward, and the reward occurs after the same number of behaviors.

Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

Continuous reinforcement is a schedule in which a desired behavior is reinforced every time it is performed. This approach is the fastest method for teaching a new behavior, as the consistent and immediate reward helps the subject quickly form a strong association between the action and its positive consequence. Because of its effectiveness in the initial stages of learning, it is a highly recommended strategy for training a new behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

In a variable interval reinforcement schedule, reinforcement is delivered after unpredictable and varying periods of time have passed. Because the timing of the reward is not known, this schedule tends to produce a steady and consistent rate of response.

Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule

Once a behavior has been learned, trainers often switch to a partial reinforcement schedule, also known as intermittent reinforcement. Under this schedule, the desired behavior is not reinforced every single time it is performed; instead, the reward is delivered only some of the time.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

In a fixed interval reinforcement schedule, a reward is given for a desired behavior only after a specific, unvarying amount of time has passed. Any instances of the behavior that occur before the interval is over are not reinforced. This schedule is considered the least productive in terms of response rate and is the easiest to extinguish, as the behavior tends to cease quickly if the reinforcement is not delivered at the expected time.

Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule

In a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule, a reward is delivered only after a predetermined number of responses have been made. This schedule is particularly effective at producing a high rate of response because the reinforcement is directly tied to the quantity of the behavior performed.

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

A coffee shop has a loyalty program where a customer receives a free drink after purchasing nine drinks. This is an example of which type of reinforcement schedule?

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