Attachment theory is a psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory concerning relationships between humans. This theory focuses on understanding the functions of a close bond with an attachment figure such as a parent or spouse. It was formulated by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby.

Attachment Theory

The study of attachment in developmental psychology is guided by several central questions. Researchers seek to understand the mechanisms behind the formation of parent-infant bonds, the potential effects of neglect on these connections, and the reasons for variations in attachment styles among different children.

Key Research Questions in Attachment

The Strange Situation is a structured observational procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to study attachment between infants, typically aged 12-18 months, and their primary caregivers. The procedure involves a sequence of events in a toy-filled room: the caregiver and infant are initially alone, then a stranger enters, the caregiver leaves the infant with the stranger, and finally, the caregiver returns to comfort the infant. An infant's reactions throughout these stages, especially during the reunion, are analyzed to determine their attachment style.

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Procedure

Analyze the following scenario. Based on the child's actions and the caregiver's responses, what can be inferred about the nature of the emotional connection between them? Justify your conclusion with specific examples from the text.

Analyzing Infant-Caregiver Interaction

Attachment is defined as a long-standing connection or bond with others. In the context of developmental psychology, it specifically refers to the crucial bond formed between an infant and a caregiver, which is considered the major social milestone of infancy. The study of attachment also extends to adulthood, examining the tendency to seek and maintain emotionally supportive relationships.

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- Prenatal development 
- Physical development 
- Cognitive development
- Language development
- Intelligence and academic achievement
- Social development
- Family influence
- Peer influence
- Moral development
- Gender development
- Stages of development
- Death and Dying
- Attachment
- Continuous and discontinuous development
- Nature and nurture
- Normative Approach to development

Topics in Developmental Psychology

Psychological topics to consider from infancy to childhood include:

- Physical development
- Cognitive development 
- Attachment 
- Self-concept

Infancy to Childhood in Psychology

Psychosocial development takes place as infants and children build relationships, engage with others, and learn to comprehend and regulate their emotions. Attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy and forming a self-concept is the main psychosocial milestone of childhood.

Psychosocial Development in Infancy Through Childhood

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/ 

APA Dictionary of Psychology

This refers to the idea that families and parental relationships with children can have a lasting impact on adolescent development due to these often being the first interactions a child experiences in life. 

Family Influences

Language development refers to the process by which humans come to understand and communicate language. This field of study examines the stages of language acquisition from infancy through adulthood, including the development of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Language Development

Cognitive development refers to the changes in an individual's mental processes. This domain includes the development of learning, attention, memory, language abilities, thinking, reasoning skills, and creativity.

Cognitive Development

The process of finding or categorizing one's own identity within or outside of the gender binary. This involves multiple factors, including consolidating one's identity with one's biological sex, one's role in the immediate microsystem, or even the stereotypes one faces. This process often occurs in childhood through adolescence, but can be a lifelong journey.

Gender Development

* Cultural, religious, and individual backgrounds perspectives on death
* Grief
* Hospice care
* Palliative care
* Living wills or advance directives
* Death anxiety 
* Death phobia
* Near-death experiences
* Trauma and Loss
* Coping Mechanisms
* Understanding of Death in Different Developmental Stages

Death-Related Topics in Psychology

Attachment in Developmental Psychology

The normative approach in developmental psychology seeks to understand and define "normal" development by establishing norms, or average ages, for achieving specific developmental milestones. Originating in the early 20th century, this method involves studying large groups of children across various ages to determine these benchmarks. These norms are applied across the three developmental domains (physical, cognitive, and psychosocial) and are used by psychologists as general guidelines to identify when a child might need additional support. However, there is a contemporary awareness that the term "normal" should be used with consideration, with some practitioners preferring alternative terminology.

Normative Approach to Development

From infancy to childhood, individuals develop:
- Reflexes
- Motor Skills

Physical Development from Infancy to Childhood

The contrast between a newborn sea turtle's instinctual journey to the ocean and a human learning to surf or swim illustrates the difference between innate and learned behaviors. Sea turtles are born with the knowledge to find the ocean and swim without parental guidance. In contrast, humans are not born with complex skills like swimming or surfing; these abilities must be acquired through practice, observation, and instruction.

Comparison of Innate vs. Learned Behavior: Sea Turtles and Surfing

Developmental psychology grapples with several fundamental questions about human growth. Three of the most significant debates are: 1) Continuity vs. Discontinuity, which questions if development is a smooth, gradual process or occurs in distinct stages; 2) One Course vs. Many Courses, which explores whether development follows a universal path for all individuals or varies based on unique sociocultural contexts; and 3) Nature vs. Nurture, which examines the interplay between genetic inheritance and environmental influences in shaping development.

Major Issues in Developmental Psychology

The nature versus nurture debate is a foundational question in psychology that investigates the relative influence of genetics and biology (nature) versus environment and culture (nurture) in shaping an individual. This debate explores how our personalities and traits are determined by our genetic inheritance and biological factors, and how they are molded by our surroundings, including our family, peers, and cultural context. The core of this debate is captured by questions such as why children often resemble their biological parents, whether adopted children are more similar to their biological or adoptive families, and what accounts for the differences between siblings raised in the same household.

The Nature vs. Nurture Debate in Developmental Psychology

To study the human lifespan, developmental psychologists often segment it into distinct, age-based periods. This approach, which is similar to the structure of theories like Erikson's, allows for a focused examination of development. The primary stages include prenatal development, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Age-Based Stages of Lifespan Development

Two developmental psychologists are observing a child's progress in learning to walk. Psychologist A argues, 'The child's ability is improving bit by bit each day; yesterday they could barely stand, and today they took a wobbly step. It's a slow, steady process.' Psychologist B counters, 'I disagree. The child is not just getting 'better' at standing. They have now moved into a completely new phase of mobility, which is fundamentally different from the crawling phase.' What is the fundamental disagreement between these two psychologists?

Theories of social development provide theoretical frameworks for understanding how individuals develop social and emotional skills, form attachments, and interact with their environments over time. The primary perspectives include psychoanalytic theories, learning theories, theories of social cognition, and ecological theories of development.

Theories of Social Development

- Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
- Preoperational (2-7 years)
- Concrete Operational (7-11)
- Formal Operations (11+ years)

Piaget's 4 Stages of Discontinuous Child Cognitive Development

Read the following scenario about a 4-year-old child named Maya. Analyze her behaviors and statements, identifying examples of at least three distinct areas of psychological development. For each area you identify, explain how Maya's actions demonstrate that specific type of development.

Analyzing Developmental Domains in Early Childhood

Infants initially lack a self-concept, an understanding of their own identity. For example, when presented with a mirror, a young infant will interact with their reflection as if it were another baby. A key indicator of developing self-awareness, known as self-recognition, emerges around 18 months of age. This is often demonstrated through the mirror test, where a toddler who sees a mark on their nose in the mirror will touch their own nose, not the reflection. This development continues, and by 24 to 36 months, children can typically identify themselves in photographs.

Development of Self-Concept in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Read the following scenario and then analyze the child's behavior to identify the developmental milestones being demonstrated.

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