An example of classical conditioning can be seen during a thunderstorm. A person naturally jumps (a reflex) in response to a loud boom of thunder. If a flash of lightning consistently precedes the thunder, the person may learn to associate the two stimuli. Consequently, they may begin to jump at the sight of lightning alone, in anticipation of the thunder.

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Classical conditioning is a learning process through which we learn to associate stimuli. As a result of this association, we learn to anticipate events. For example, after repeatedly seeing lightning just before hearing thunder, a person might begin to jump at the sight of lightning alone, anticipating the loud noise.

Classical Conditioning

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

1) Pavlov presented his  dogs with the sound of a bell (NS) which did not elicit any response


2) Started to pair the sound of the bell (NS) with food (US), which did elicit an unconditioned response (salivation)


3) After repeated presentation, the sound of the bell alone (now the CS) made the dogs salivate (CR) 

(McLeod 2018)

Ivan Pavlov's dogs

Extinction is the process in classical conditioning where a learned response diminishes and eventually vanishes. This occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). As the association between the two stimuli weakens, the organism's conditioned response (CR) becomes progressively weaker until it ceases entirely. For instance, Pavlov observed this when he repeatedly sounded a tone for his dogs without providing meat powder, which led to the dogs eventually stopping their salivation response to the tone.

Extinction

Acquisition is the initial learning phase in classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. With each pairing, the strength of the conditioned response increases. This process of repeated association gradually transforms the neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, which can then elicit the conditioned response on its own.

Acquisition

Can a behavior be conditioned if the neutral stimulus is presented after the unconditioned stimulus?

Spontaneous recovery is the re-emergence of a conditioned response that had previously been extinguished. This phenomenon occurs after a rest period during which the conditioned stimulus is not presented. For example, Pavlov observed that after his dogs underwent extinction training and stopped salivating to a bell, they would once again begin to salivate at the sound of the bell following a few hours of rest.

Spontaneous Recovery

- Unconditioned stimulus (US): stimulus that produces an automatic response without prior conditioning


- Unconditioned response (UR): unconditioned reaction automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus


- Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning


- Conditioned stimulus (CS): a previous NS that elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the US


- Conditioned response (CR): the learned response to the conditioned stimulus after the CS and US are paired


(Spielman 2020)

Classical Conditioning: Terms

Classical Conditioning: Lightning and Thunder

A real-world example of classical conditioning can be seen in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. For instance, a patient named Moisha vomited after her treatments. The chemotherapy drugs were the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that caused the unconditioned response (UCR) of vomiting. After repeated visits, the doctor's office, which was previously neutral, became a conditioned stimulus (CS). Consequently, Moisha began to feel nauseous—the conditioned response (CR)—simply upon visiting the oncologist's office, even before receiving treatment.

Classical Conditioning in Chemotherapy Patients

A common example of classical conditioning involves a cat named Tiger. The cat's food serves as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which naturally elicits excitement as the unconditioned response (UCR). A specific electric can opener, used only for the cat's food, makes a distinct sound. This sound, initially a neutral stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after being repeatedly paired with the food. Consequently, Tiger learns to get excited and run to the food preparation area—the conditioned response (CR)—upon hearing the sound of the can opener alone.

Classical Conditioning in a Cat

At Stingray City in the Cayman Islands, southern stingrays provide a real-world example of classical conditioning. The process began when fishermen regularly cleaned fish and conch (unconditioned stimulus) at a sandbar, causing stingrays to gather to eat (unconditioned response). Over the years, the stingrays learned to associate the sound of boat engines, initially a neutral stimulus, with this food source. As a result, the engine noise became a conditioned stimulus, prompting a conditioned response where dozens of stingrays now swarm tour boats, bumping and rubbing against people in anticipation of being fed treats like squid. This response is maintained by the presence of food, as the stingrays leave once the treats are gone.

Classical Conditioning in Stingrays

An example of classical conditioning in infants involves a six-month-old named Angelina and her baby formula. The formula is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally elicits excitement and salivation as an unconditioned response (UCR). Initially, the blue canister containing the formula is a neutral stimulus. Through repeated association with the formula, Angelina learns that the canister signals feeding time. Consequently, the canister becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), and the sight of it alone is enough to trigger a conditioned response (CR), such as excitement and reaching for the container.

Classical Conditioning in an Infant with a Formula Canister

Classical conditioning is not limited to food-related stimuli and can be used to condition emotional responses like fear. For instance, in the case of an invisible electric dog fence, a dog learns to associate the edge of the yard (a neutral stimulus) with the discomfort of a small electrical shock (an unconditioned stimulus). After this pairing, the edge of the yard becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits fear and anxiety (the conditioned response), compelling the dog to stay within the designated boundaries.

Classical Conditioning with an Electric Dog Fence

A humorous example of classical conditioning is depicted in the television show *The Office*. In the scene, a character named Jim conditions his coworker, Dwight, by repeatedly making a specific computer sound before offering him a breath mint. After several pairings, the sound alone, which was initially a neutral stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus, causing Dwight to automatically expect a mint, demonstrating a conditioned response.

Classical Conditioning in 'The Office'

Robert Rescorla was a prominent researcher who, along with his colleague Allan Wagner, significantly advanced the understanding of classical conditioning. He demonstrated that the predictive power of a conditioned stimulus (CS) over the occurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a critical factor in the learning process. Their work culminated in the development of the Rescorla-Wagner model.

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