- In Malaysia, web page accessibility guidelines focus more on reading and writing, and so other aspects of online learning are not given as much attention (such as computer-mediated communication).
- A study on Malaysian students with dyslexia and without dyslexia in synchronous and asynchronous learning environments.
   - From secondary schools in online learning environments with various ways of communication.
   - Measured their engagement levels from various ways of interactions.

Inclusive Dyslexia-Friendly Collaborative Online Learning Environment: Malaysia Case Study

- There is research revealing that harder-to-read fonts in education generate deeper processing.
   - Deeper processing leads to better retention and recalling of information.
- The paper discusses how disfluent fonts significantly improve retention and recalling information across a range of students, especially students with dyslexia.


Changing Fonts in Education: How the Benefits Vary with Ability and Dyslexia

This study observes the genetic analyses of dyslexia candidate genes in European students. The total number of participants in the study was 2,108 of those 1,150 were controls and around 958 individuals with dyslexia. Genes such as DYX1C1, DCDC2, or KIAA0319 were all observed in the determination of whether there was a genetic component in dyslexia.

Genetic analysis of dyslexia candidate genes in the European cross-linguistic NeuroDys cohort

Layes, S. (2022). Verbal and visual memory skills in children with dyslexia and dyscalculia. Psychology &amp; Neuroscience, 15(3), 251–266. https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000289 

Verbal and visual memory skills in children with dyslexia and dyscalculia

A research study was conducted on Arabic-speaking children with diagnosed dyslexia and their verbal and visual memory skills. Specifically, verbal and visual short-term memory and verbal working memory were assessed. 

Dyslexia Compared to Verbal and Visual Memory Skills in Children

Individuals with dyslexia often display specific reading and writing challenges. Common symptoms include confusing letters within words and sentences, such as letter reversals, skipping entire words when reading, and having significant difficulty with correct spelling.

Symptoms of Dyslexia

Dyslexia is rooted in a neurological issue where the brain's mechanism for processing sounds does not function correctly. This impairment directly affects an individual's ability to understand the correspondence between sounds and letters, which is a fundamental skill for learning to read.

Neurological Basis of Dyslexia

Some individuals with dyslexia develop compensatory strategies to navigate their reading difficulties. One such coping mechanism is to memorize the visual shapes of most words, allowing them to recognize words without actually learning to read them phonetically.

Coping Mechanisms for Dyslexia

An 8-year-old student is described by their teacher as 'very bright and articulate' in class discussions and easily understands complex stories when they are read aloud. However, when asked to read independently, the student struggles, frequently confusing the orientation of letters like 'b' and 'd', and has significant difficulty sounding out new words. Their spelling is also poor, despite their strong vocabulary. Based on this profile, what is the most likely learning disability present? Justify your answer by connecting specific observations from the case to the core characteristics of the disability.

Analyzing Reading Difficulties

A student has significant difficulty decoding words because their brain struggles to process the sounds associated with letters. To compensate, they have become very skilled at memorizing the visual shape of entire words. Which statement best evaluates the long-term effectiveness of this compensatory strategy for developing comprehensive reading skills?

Dyslexia, the most prevalent learning disability among children, is characterized by an impaired ability to process letters correctly. This difficulty stems from a neurological issue with the brain's sound-processing mechanisms, which can make learning to read a frustrating experience.

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Georgetown University

University of Chicago

- Dyscalculia
- Dysgraphia
- Dyslexia
- Nonverbal Learning Disabilities
- Oral/Written Language Disorder and Specific

Types of Learning Disabilities

- Word reading accuracy
- Reading rate or fluency
- Reading comprehension


Specific Learning Disorder: Specified impairment in Reading

Wikipedia

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Dyslexia

Dysgraphia is a learning disability characterized by a significant struggle with the physical act of writing, often leading to illegible handwriting. Individuals with this condition find it extremely challenging to use a pen and paper and frequently have difficulty transferring their thoughts into written form. A key diagnostic feature is that this writing difficulty is inconsistent with the person's IQ; their intellectual capabilities in other areas suggest they should be able to write, but they cannot. Additionally, dysgraphia may co-occur with problems related to spatial abilities.

Dysgraphia

Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVLD) is a learning disability characterized by difficulties with motor-visual coordination, processing spatial information, and sometimes with reading nonverbal cues and with executive functioning. Those with NVLD are often highly verbally intelligent, which may partially or completely hide their difficulties in other areas. Although NVLD is not currently a diagnosis in the DSM-5, many researchers are advocating for it to be recognized officially in the DSM-6.  

Non-Verbal Learning Disability

Dyscalculia, also known as developmental dyscalculia, is a learning disability characterized by significant difficulties with numerical and arithmetic skills. Early signs can include trouble determining the number of objects in a small group without counting. Other common symptoms involve challenges with memorizing math facts, organizing numbers, and distinguishing between different representations of numbers, such as the numeral '3', the word 'three', and various mathematical symbols. Research also suggests an association between dyscalculia and specific changes in brain activity and structure.

Dyscalculia

Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities. If dyslexia is used to specify this particular pattern of difficulties, it is important also to specify any additional difficulties that are present, such as difficulties with reading comprehension or math reasoning.


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