1. knowledge maps to deliver new information to students (Dansereau)
2. Studying CMs are advantages regardless of grade levels and the study subject both STEM and non-STEM subjects [nesbit2006learning]
3.  Studying CMs can enhance meaningful learning due to the reduction in Extraneous Cognitive Load [schroeder2018studying]. 
4. Concept maps in comparison to texts have fewer contextual details. This invokes meta-cognitive prompts to some extent as constructing a concept map [schroeder2018studying].


Concept maps improve reading comprehension

Benefits of text summaries in comparison to text on learning are discussed by other researchers [reder1980comparison,reder1982effects]

Text summaries are superior to text

In our design each node includes a summary of a text with headings. Incorporating headings in each node is aligned with previous findings on the positive impact of heading on free recall [brooks1983effects]

Headings help comprehension

- In Hybrid map the most general notions are located on the left-middle corner. readers focus more on the left corner when beginning to read a concept map [nesbit2007students]
- Hierarchical left-to-right concept maps are superior to top-down network concept maps [amadieu2009effects].

Left-to-right orientation improves readability

As advised by Piavio’s dual coding theory [clark1991dual Page164,171] in Hybrid map text summaries are represented in a pictorial node- link format which reduces verbal channel overload and enhances learning and information retention 
[kalhor2012teaching page 730].


Pictorial 2D representation of text improves comprehension (DCT)

Previously [dansereau2005nodepage 76] showed that using few words in a node may “Contain insufficient detail and richness for expressing complex and ambiguous relationships” 

Insufficient detail and richness in Novakian concept maps

1. Concept maps improve reading comprehension
2. Text summaries are superior to text
3. Headings help comprehension
4. Left-to-right orientation improves readability
5. Pictorial 2D representation of text improves comprehension (DCT)
6. Insufficient detail and richness in Novakian concept maps

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

This paper tries to compare impact of Hybrid map and Concept map on Reading Comprehension, Delayed Reading Comprehension, Free Recall and Delayed Free Recall. In this paper reading material were taken from ACT exams.

Hybrid Map: Visualizing Relations Between Paragraphs Improves Readability, Reading Comprehension, and Learning Compared to Novakian Concept Maps

Reading materials from (American college testing) has been used in several studies as a standard materials for running different experiments. Because they are supposed to be a reasonable difficulty so that all college student can answer them.

ACT reading materials as a standard material for experiments

- Providing participants with no incentive or reward
- Taking per-test MCQ
- Providing Sample passage before reading actual map
- Free Recall Scoring
- Qualitative Coding of feedback

Experiment set-up for Hybrid map paper

Hybrid map design rational

Language used in academic, scientific literature is not entirely standardized but has several characteristics and conventions that are commonly used. It is distinct from narrative or informal writing.


Academic Language in Science

A quasi-experimental studies performed upon 1st year medicine students, studying the effect of concept-map learning compared to normal learning on grades in two language classes (English and Romanian), showed that concept mapping significantly increased students' grade on language learning over a period of 6 months. 

They utilized concept maps that involved: first, developing a question/target topic; second, developing 10-20 words that are put into boxes hierarchically; and thied, connecting these boxes with explanatory arrows, hierarchically, then with expanding associations. Results are then measured through the students’ grades 3 and 6 months later. 


Effect of Anatomy Learning through Concept Mapping on Long Term Memory

Model for visualizing and understanding how readers ingest and comprehend a text. In the model, reading is envisioned as a cyclical process by which a reader engages with ideas in the text. Each cycle represents a new sentence or proposition. During a cycle concepts fluctuate into activation when they obtain the attention of the reader. Concepts that are activated throughout the cycles that occur while reading result in an episodic memory representation of the text or situation model. 


Landscape Model

- Hypertext externalizes and augments the human capacity to make meaningful connections 
- Three drivers of change
- Theories behind hypertext
- Examples of hypertext applications 
- The benefits of hypertext systems

Hypertext design rationale

- Definition of Theory 
- DCT supports our design 

Dual Coding Theory

1. The role of language in deductive reasoning is confined to an initial stage

Language and Deduction 

An instructional design theory based on human cognitive architecture.

Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

- For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning

Dual coding theory - experiments

Knowledge that is conscious and can be verbalized: facts, data, and pieces of information, such as mathematical or scientific facts.

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