A type of memory distortion in which an individual’s memory of an event becomes more aligned with another person’s reported memory of the event.


Memory conformity

The formation of false memories can be reduced if one is warned about the potential to form false memories before they learn information that may trigger a false memory. However, giving this warning after one learns information that may trigger false memories is ineffective at reducing the impact and formation of false memories.

False memory warning

A way to measure a participant's susceptibility to misinformation. 
- Phase 1: participant is exposed to a complex event.
- Phase 2: after exposure to the event, someone else comments on the event, usually presenting misinformation.
- Phase 3: participant is tested on their memory of the source of details (whether it came from the event itself or the second source).


Three-phase misinformation paradigm (Loftus et al., 1978)

Psychologist, Daniel Schacter, provides specifics about how fragile long-term memory can be, through the seven sins of memory, which provide seven ways our long term memory can fail us.  

The Seven Sins of Memory

Refers to the recall of false memories from one's own life. The recall often occurs during therapy sessions where adults seemingly recover memories of physical or sexual abuse from their childhood. However, the term is not an officially recognized diagnostic term. In addition, this condition is especially controversial in cases where there are no independent witnesses to the events, where typically only the victim and perpetrator are present.

False Memory Syndrome

The process of bringing up old memories is called memory reconstruction. When a memory is retrieved from long-term storage into short-term memory, it becomes flexible and susceptible to modification. During this process, old memories can be unintentionally combined with new events, which alters what a person believes they remember and can result in inaccuracies or distortions.

Memory Reconstruction

In a foundational 1974 study, Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer explored how leading questions could influence memory. They presented films of car accidents to 45 college students and asked them to estimate the speed of the vehicles. The critical manipulation was the verb used in the question, 'About how fast were the cars going when they ___ each other?' The verb was varied with words like 'smashed,' 'collided,' 'bumped,' 'hit,' or 'contacted.' The results showed a clear correlation between the intensity of the verb and the speed estimate: 'smashed' yielded an average estimate of about 41 mph, 'collided' 39 mph, 'bumped' 37 mph, 'hit' 34 mph, and 'contacted' 32 mph. In a follow-up a week later, participants in the 'smashed' group were also more than twice as likely to falsely recall seeing broken glass, demonstrating that post-event information can distort memories and even create false ones.

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Car Crash Experiment

Leading questions, which are phrased to suggest a specific answer, can significantly distort memory. This influence can alter recollections of an event's details, such as making an accident seem more severe, and can also lead to the creation of entirely false memories for things that never occurred, as demonstrated in studies where participants recall seeing non-existent broken glass after hearing suggestive language.

Leading Questions and Memory Distortion

Research has demonstrated that the creation of false memories is not confined to altering minor details or words within an event. It is also possible for individuals to construct and vividly recall entire complex events that they never actually experienced, highlighting the extensive reconstructive capabilities of human memory.

Scope of False Memories: From Details to Whole Events

Based on the principles of how memory functions, what is the most likely psychological explanation for the significant changes in Alex's account of the car incident over time?

Analysis of a Witness's Evolving Memory

Research has demonstrated the occurrence of false memories among research participants. For instance, participants have confidently recalled hearing a specific word, even though they never heard the word (Roediger & McDermott, 2000).

Example of False Memory in Research

A false memory is a recollection of an event, or details of an event, that did not actually occur. This phenomenon highlights that human memory is not a perfect, video-like recording of the past but is instead a reconstructive process capable of creating memories for things that never happened.

Google

Columbia University

Pepperdine University

- The information appears to be true or is believable 
- Being rewritten in different forms
- Being accessible through multiple sources
- Confirmation Bias 
- Authoritative bias 
- Targeting hot topics
- Indicating urgency
- The Sunk Cost Fallacy 
- emotional appeals 
- False Beliefs
- Labels can lead to errors in assessment of information
- False Memories
- Inaccurate evaluation of information
- Ease of Processing
- Underthinking
- Deliberative processes

Reasons Misinformation Spreads

A common type of bias that occurs when one does not recall information verbatim but instead recalls their own personal interpretation of the information.

Memory Bias

Human memory is not a perfect recording device; it is flexible and susceptible to numerous errors. These inaccuracies can lead to feelings of frustration or embarrassment and have significant real-world consequences, such as the demonstrated unreliability of eyewitness testimony in legal contexts.

Problems with Memory

Suggestibility is a memory distortion error where individuals accept and incorporate misinformation from external sources into their personal recollections. This process, which can be triggered by leading questions from sources like a therapist or a police interviewer, can lead to the creation of false memories for events or details that were only suggested, not actually experienced.

Suggestibility

Britt, M. A., Rouet, J.-F., Blaum, D., & Millis, K. (2019). A Reasoned Approach to Dealing With Fake News. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6(1), 94–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732218814855

A Reasoned Approach to Dealing With Fake News

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Misinformation Gets Attention Through Being Intertwined with Elements of Truth

Misinformation Gets Attention Through Being Rewritten in Different Forms

Misinformation Gets Attention Through Being Accessible Through Multiple Sources

Misinformation Gets Attention Through Targeting Hot Topics

A fallacy where individuals are less likely to give up an investment (financial or emotional) the more time they have put into it. 

The Sunk Cost Fallacy

A bias where individuals are more likely to follow figures of authority/influence. 

Authoritative Bias 

Many aspects of social media make it especially susceptible to the spread of misinformation. 
- Messages are easy to process, therefore easy to believe.
- Credibility is easily established by following friends, who often have similar views (which also establishes compatibility).
- Posts are shared by people you trust, establishes repetition and social consensus.
- Comments and related posts provide supporting evidence and familiarity.
- Users can gain a false sense of expertise, becoming very familiar with one perspective. 
- Lack of opposing ideas on a person’s feed is interpreted as a lack of different ideas overall.


The Susceptibility of Social Media to Misinformation

Errors in one's knowledge system that lead them to believe that an inaccurate piece of information is true.

False Beliefs

Labels can powerfully impact the way one assesses and interacts with information. Some labels have been known to distort perception and cause individuals to jump to inaccurate conclusions or misinterpret information.

The impact of labels on the assessment of information

Misinformation can spread because people are distracted by information other than accuracy. Some of these could include: party alignment, social relevance, or social reinforcement. 

Inattention-Based Account of Misinformation

False Memories

- Cognitive biases 
- Accuracy of information is not a priority when gaining knowledge 
- The source of information is unknown or unreliable 
- Sources are often listed after the information has already been presented and embedded into one's knowledge base
- Evidence for a piece of information is not relevant  but gives the illusion of support 
- Alternative viewpoints are not considered
- Monitoring the accuracy of information takes great effort
- Working against one's own biases is difficult

Reasons for inaccurate evaluation of information

According to a study conducted by Cheng Zhou, Kai Li, and Yanhong Lu, misinformation containing specific linguistic qualities is more likely to be shared on social media. By examining the content of fake news posts and the number of shares, they found that misinformation containing persuasive and uncertainty words were more likely to be shared than true posts. The effect was moderated by the richness of the information. 

Linguistic Traits of Misinformation Online

During a crisis, social media is used to spread information. Anyone can take part in the spreading of information which can be bad. Trust during a crisis is important and if individuals' social media posts are not regulated or fact-checked like those belonging to an organization or agency misinformation spreads. Rumor's and misinformation can cause panic and lead to resources being spent on false leads.

Social Media is Unregulated: Double-edge Sword 

People are more likely to believe a claim that they have been exposed to repeatedly. Repetition increases the perception of social consensus, even when it is just one person’s account being repeated multiple times. The effect of repetition of messages is so strong that it can sway people who are unsure and even convince people who know it is false to accept it.


Repetition of Information

We are more likely to accept information that is easy to process. 


Ease of Processing

When people accept information intuitively, rather than using systematic reasoning to critically analyze it. Can affect people with lower cognitive ability, people who rely on intuitive thinking, and people in situations which elicit underthinking.


Underthinking

- Negative emotional state vs. positive emotional state
- High arousal conditions vs. low arousal conditions
- The cognitive impact of anger 
- Anger and suggestibility
- Anger's effect on speed and confidence 
- Post-truth situation

Influences of emotion on accepting misinformation

Discourse concerning the role of deliberation in the creation of false beliefs from misinformation has been centered on two main perspectives:
- Motivated System 2 Reasoning (MS2R)
- Classical reasoning

Misinformation: Deliberative Processes

Social media algorithms analyze user behavior and prioritize content the platform believes the user wants to see and is most likely to engage with.

Social Media Algorithm

Defined as the extent to which news, regardless of its accuracy, is believed. Calculated as the average of one's belief in true news and belief in false news

Overall belief in fake news

A motivated reasoning account that posits that deliberation causes individuals to belief information (real or fake) that aligns with their political beliefs. This theory hypothesizes that there is a positive association between analytic thinking and perceived accuracy of headlines that align with one's beliefs. 

Motivated System 2 Reasoning (MS2R)

Confirmation bias is the cognitive tendency to selectively focus on cases that validate our pre-existing intuitive beliefs while actively disregarding or forgetting cases that contradict them. This mental shortcut leads individuals to reinforce incorrect assumptions by ignoring disconfirming evidence.

Confirmation Bias

Participants in this study were given short arguments to read, were asked their opinion of the argument, and then immediately asked to recall the argument verbatim. Most participants were unable to recall the argument as it was presented to them but rather remembered their own interpretation of the argument, oftentimes in ways that changed the meaning of the original argument.

Memory bias experiment

* Amnesia
* Dementia
* Alzheimer's Disease

Disorders of Memory

Forgetting is defined as the loss of information from long-term memory. This is a universal human experience, manifesting in everyday situations like forgetting a name, a birthday, or the location of personal items like car keys. Such memory failures, while common, can be a source of frustration and embarrassment, underscoring the fragile nature of human memory.

Forgetting

Misattribution is a type of memory error comprised of forgetting the correct source of information. For example, misattribution occurs as a person believes they had a certain conversation with their best friend, but in reality, they had that conversation with their parent.

Misattribution 

Misleading information that is presented to someone after witnessing event can change how they recall and explain that event. One common explanation is retroactive interference (new learning interfering with old memory/understanding)

Misinformation  Effect Paradigm

Memory errors, or failures in remembering, can be broadly classified into different categories. A prominent framework is Schacter's 'Seven Sins of Memory,' which divides errors into sins of omission (forgetting) and sins of commission (distortions). Other significant errors include those stemming from the misinformation effect, source misattribution, and pragmatic inferences.

Classification of Memory Errors

Despite the known fragility of human memory, the legal system, including police, prosecutors, and courts, often depends heavily on eyewitness testimony for criminal prosecutions. This reliance is problematic because memory is a reconstructive process, making eyewitness accounts susceptible to errors that can lead to faulty identifications and, ultimately, wrongful convictions.

Eyewitness Testimony and its Unreliability

Elizabeth Loftus is a cognitive psychologist known for her extensive research on human memory. Her work has significantly contributed to the understanding of false memories and the concept of recovered memories, particularly in the context of childhood sexual abuse. Loftus is also credited with developing the misinformation effect paradigm.

Elizabeth Loftus

The concept of repressed memories, originating with Sigmund Freud, posits that memories of traumatic experiences can be unconsciously blocked from awareness. This idea has been a significant and controversial topic within psychology, with ongoing debate about its validity and the mechanisms through which memories might be recovered.

Repressed Memories

To counteract the natural fallibility and errors of the human memory system, various strategies can be employed. Common techniques include the use of mnemonic devices, rehearsal, self-referencing, and ensuring adequate sleep. These methods are also beneficial for enhancing learning and studying effectively.

Strategies to Combat Memory Failure

Analyze the following scenario and identify the specific memory error that leads the witness to recall seeing broken glass. Explain the psychological process responsible for this inaccurate memory.

Eyewitness Memory Distortion

The 2002 DC sniper attacks provide a stark real-world illustration of suggestibility's impact on criminal investigations. Over a three-week period, a series of shootings that killed ten people created widespread fear, leading law enforcement to receive over 140,000 tips. The investigation was significantly misdirected after a white van was spotted at one shooting site and this detail was publicized by the police chief. Following this news conference, numerous other eyewitnesses reported seeing a white van, likely influenced by the suggestion. This led police and the public to focus almost exclusively on this incorrect lead, ignoring other tips. The error of this focus was revealed when the suspects were finally caught driving a blue sedan, highlighting how external misinformation can create false memories and derail an investigation.

DC Sniper Attacks as an Example of Suggestibility

Suggestion acts as a direct cause for the formation of false memories. This causal relationship occurs when an individual internalizes a proposed idea or piece of information from an external source, subsequently creating a memory for something that was merely suggested rather than genuinely experienced.

Suggestion as a Cause of False Memories

The case of Jennifer Thompson and Ronald Cotton is a landmark example of wrongful conviction driven by eyewitness misidentification. During the initial police identification, Thompson was uncertain, stating she thought Cotton was the perpetrator and that he 'looks most like him.' However, by the time of the trial, this uncertainty had transformed into absolute conviction, heavily influenced by suggestive police procedures. Her compelling testimony led to Cotton's conviction and a sentence of life plus 50 years. Despite a second trial resulting in two life sentences, Cotton was exonerated 11 years later when DNA evidence definitively proved his innocence, showing he had served more than a decade for a crime he did not commit.

The Case of Jennifer Thompson and Ronald Cotton

To reduce the suggestibility of witnesses, interview practices can be modified to use neutral and less leading language. This approach is particularly effective for child witnesses, as it helps them provide more accurate recollections of events and individuals involved.

Modified Questioning Techniques for Witnesses

Suggestibility and misattribution are both memory distortion errors that result in false memories. The primary distinction between them is the origin of the misinformation. In misattribution, the false memory is generated internally by the individual. In suggestibility, the false memory is formed by incorporating misleading information from an external source.

Comparison of Suggestibility and Misattribution

Read the following scenario. Analyze how the witness's final testimony was likely shaped by a specific type of memory distortion. Identify the distortion and explain the process by which their memory was altered, referencing specific details from the scenario.

Eyewitness Memory Analysis

Analyze the witness's changing recollection of the event. Explain the psychological process that accounts for the witness's memory of the car 'speeding' and the presence of a 'large dent' that they did not initially observe.

False memories can be created as a result of suggestibility. When an individual is exposed to misinformation from external sources, the fragility of memory allows this incorrect information to take root, causing the person to remember details that did not actually occur.

False Memories via Suggestibility

The public response to the 2002 DC sniper attacks illustrates the fragility of memory in high-stress situations. Over three weeks, a series of shootings left ten people dead, causing widespread terror. When a police tip hotline was set up, law enforcement received over 140,000 tips leading to approximately 35,000 possible suspects, highlighting how easily witnesses can be misled or form inaccurate memories.

Eyewitness Suggestibility Example: DC Sniper Attacks

During a series of shootings, a police chief broadcasted a picture of a white van spotted at one of the crime scenes. Following this exposure to leading information, several other eyewitnesses claimed they also saw a white van fleeing the scene. This led police and the public to focus exclusively on the more than 70,000 white vans in the area and ignore other tips. This case illustrates how suggestibility and the misinformation effect can influence eyewitness memory, as the suspects were ultimately found driving a blue sedan.

White Van Case

In a 1974 study by Loftus and Palmer, the perceived speed of two cars that have crashed into each other varied based on the questioner's verb. The data showed that the verb 'smashed' resulted in a perceived speed of about 41 mph. The estimated speeds for other verbs were about 39 mph for 'collided', about 37 mph for 'bumped', about 34 mph for 'hit', and about 32 mph for 'contacted'.

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