Goals with an "outward" orientation - meaning they are concerned with extrinsic manifestations of worth rather than fulfilling innate need satisfaction  (Williams, Cox, Hedberg, & Deci, 2000; Fromm, 1976; Van Boven & Gilovich, 2003). In SDT, they include:
- wealth 
- fame
- image
- physical appearance 

Extrinsic goals

- Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis
- Teachers’ perceptions of academic intrinsic motivation for students with disabilities

References about extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Posited by Fogg, they are external events or actions that coerces/persuades users to perform a certain action. Triggers can be classified as:
- Sparks (draws upon motivating factors)
- Facilitators (draws upon ability/enabling factors)
- Signals (draws upon regularities or habits).

Behavioral Triggers

Incentivizing or convincing users to contribute content on the platform. This can be showing them that the utility of adding content is greater than the cost of having to create it.

Encouraging contributions in online communities

Meeting the expectations of one's peers draws on both behavioral and emotional engagement, and can facilitate further discussion that is usually absent when being assessed by a lecturer.

"Motivated by the knowledge that there is an audience."

According to SDT, there are four types of extrinsic motivation, as listed below. 

1. External Regulation
2. Introjected Regulation
3. Identified Regulation
4. Integrated Regulation

Types of Extrinsic Motivation

"The extrinsic reward structures of engagement-contingent rewards, completion-contingent rewards, and performance-contingent rewards all undermine intrinsic motivation in most cases... Adding too many extrinsic badges, points, or rewards may undermine your efforts." (Kapp 2012).



Extrinsic - Intrinsic Motivation Conflicts

Willingness and consistency in performing said task. Can also be seen as "positive conduct" or "participation" with regards to the task at hand. Usually measured by:
- Persistence
- Level of concentration
- Contributions made

Behavioral Engagement

Self-Determination Theory has been utilized by some physicians to aid in patient's wellbeing. This is usually done by encouraging exercise, healthy eating, diabetes self-management, and more. The theory is that by encouraging and rewarding positive behavior. patients can improve themselves.

Self-Determination Theory in Healthcare

A proper parent-child relationship is supposed to support the child physically and emotionally. When done effectively, children are more likely to succeed in school and be happier in life. Negative parent-child relationships harm the ability of a student to succeed in academic settings.

Parent-Child Relationships in Education 

If someone wants to be an actor because they want to become famous, do they have intrinsic or extrinsic motivation for pursuing acting?

Extrinsic motivation stems from external factors. Common examples of these external drivers include tangible outcomes like compensation, the avoidance of punishment, or the attainment of other external rewards.

Examples of Extrinsic Motivators: Compensation, Punishment, and Reward

A student whose primary reason for attending college is to obtain a degree that leads to a high-paying career or to fulfill parental expectations is driven by extrinsic motivation. In this case, the behavior is directed by the pursuit of external outcomes, such as financial gain or social approval.

Example of Extrinsic Motivation in Education

When the means of participation is to achieve some other goal (status, money, etc.). For example, if I play a sport because I think it will impress someone. Extrinsic motivation involves doing something to receive something form others.

New Mexico Highlands University

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

Google

Trinity College (CT)

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The reasons why a person exerts effort exists a continuum of self-determined behavioral regulations, ranging from the most self-determined reasons to the least (Deci & Ryan 1985, Ryan & Deci, 2000b):
- Most self-determined form of regulation: intrinsic motivation
- Middle: extrinsic motivation
- Least self-determined form of regulation: motivation 

The continuum of Self-determined regulation

Motivation

Motivation can be classified based on its source. Intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors, where behaviors are performed for the personal satisfaction they bring. In contrast, extrinsic motivation stems from external factors, where behaviors are performed to receive a reward or outcome from others.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Kraut, Robert E., and Paul Resnick. Building successful online communities: Evidence-based social design. MIT Press, 2012.

Building successful online communities: Evidence-based social design (Kraut and Resnick)

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Graded classroom activities have a greater impact on student performance than voluntary / "participation-only" activities, especially when applied to high-risk/underachieving students. This seems to have interesting implications when considering motivational factors in classrooms:
- Intrinsic motivation may be insufficient when students are given a choice ("“I’m not being graded on this stuff and I’ve got an organic chemistry midterm tomorrow; I’m not going to bother.)
- Extrinsic motivation may be more effective for increasing attendance and performance.

Prescribed / Enforced Educational Interventions

Extrinsic Motivation

When the performance (engagement) of some activity is the end in its own right. For example, I play a sport because I enjoy doing it and may have fond memories of doing it. Intrinsic motivation relates to the personal satisfaction one feels from doing the behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation

- Research suggests that online participation including social interaction in collaborative online learning environments, is crucial in motivating students to learn and promote learning satisfaction. There needs to be a balance between group and individual participation for online learning environments to be effective. This study determined two visualization tools to motivate students to participate actively and examine its effects.

- The results show that the visualization tool on online participation can enhance their online participation however, the visualization of individual participation has a greater effect than the visualization of group participation, despite the collaborative learning community. 

Using Visualization to Motivate Student Participation in Collaborative Online Learning Environments 

"Awareness is defined as "understanding of the activities of others, which provides a context for your own activity" (Dourish & Bellotti)

- two types of awareness: group awareness and objective self-awareness.

Awareness Information

Whether or not students decide to engage in learning processes such as desirable difficulties greatly depends on how motivated they are to do so. This motivation can be influenced by a number of factors, including:
- memory of prior experiences
- task outcome expectancy/value
- achievement goal orientation
- affective state
- consequences on grades
- beliefs of competency 
- how the task is framed

Motivation and desirable difficulties: Variables effecting self-regulatory learning processes

Health behaviors (e.g., healthy eating, physical activity, practicing mindfulness) improve overall health (including physical health) and reduce the risk of chronic illnesses. However, in order for people to regularly engage in these behaviors, they need to have the motivation to do so.

Motivation | Connection to Health and Chronic Diseases

Looking at gender, age, SES, use of camera for lecturer and students, belief of neessity of distanced education, belief about effectiveness, and belief of negtive impact of pandemic on motivation, they looked at the cyclical effect of distanced learning motivation and it's impact on frequency of class attendence, mediated by anxiety, stress, depression and Intolerence of Uncertainty (IU).

- Women showed higher attendence than men
- men's motivation was higher than women's
- use of computers showed more attendence than use of smartphones
- use of computers showed higher motivation compared to use of smartphones
- urban students attended class more often
- urban students had lower levels of motivation
- depression negatively impacted attendence, though stress positively predicted attendence
- stress is not significantly associated with distance learning motivation 
- inhibitory IU was positively associated with depression, anxiety and stress, but negatively with motivation.
- IU predicts increase in relationship between anxiety and stress
- Women show higher rates of anxiety, stress, depression and IU during the pandemic
- gender is not related to student satisfaction with learning.

Psycho-demographic variables effects on higher education students during COVID-19 in Turkey

Pande, P., Thit, A., Sørensen, A. E., Mojsoska, B., Moeller, M. E., & Jepsen, P. M. (2021). Long-term effectiveness of immersive VR simulations in undergraduate science learning: Lessons from a media-comparison study. Research in Learning Technology, 29, 24. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezp1.villanova.edu/10.25304/rlt.v29.2482

Long-term effectiveness of immersive VR simulations in undergraduate science learning: Lessons from a media-comparison study

-  Positive reinforcement/ high expectations  
-  Base rewards on job performance 
-  Effective discipline and punishment  
-  Satisfy employees needs 
-  Set work related goals  
-  Restructure jobs
-  Treat people fairly  


Strategies to Improve Employee Motivation


-  Job enlargement
-  Job enrichment 
-  Job rotation

Techniques of Employee Motivation 

-  Human Capital Management 
-  Meet Personal Goals and Help an Employee Stay Motivated 
-  Greater Employee Satisfaction
-  Raising Employee Efficiency
-  A Higher Chance of Meeting the Company’s Goals
-  Better Team Harmony 
-  Workforce Stability




Benefits that Employee Motivation Brings to a Company 


-  Carry out responsibilities to the best of their ability 
-  Persistent
-  Creative
-  Productive
-  Produce high quality work that they willingly pursue. 



Characteristics of Motivated Employees

-  Likely to spend little or no effort on assigned tasks,
-  Avoid the workplace as much as they can,
-  Leave the organization if given the opportunity 
-  Produce poor quality work.


Characteristics of Unmotivated Employees


Key theories and methods related to motivation include:
- Instinct Theory
- Drive Reduction Theory
- Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
- Self-Efficacy
- Social Motives
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- Expectancy-Valence Theories
- Incentive Theory
- Yerkes-Dodson Law
- Temporal Motivation Theory
- Remembered Success Effect
- Procrastination
- Gamification
- Game Based Learning

Theories and Methods of Motivation

Similar to eating, sexual activity is a fundamental motivated behavior essential to many people's lives. While its primary evolutionary purpose is the perpetuation of the species, human sexual behavior is complex and extends far beyond simple reproduction. The psychological study of this domain provides an overview of research on human sexual behavior and motivation, including key topics like sexual orientation and gender identity.

Sexual Behavior, Sexuality, and Gender Identity

Motivational theory in psychology comprises a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as a hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Influential figures in researching motivation include:

- William James

Influential Figures in Research on Motivation

Biologically-oriented theories of motivation propose that behavior is driven by innate biological mechanisms. Key examples include theories centered on instincts and the physiological need to maintain the body's internal balance, or homeostasis.

Biologically-Oriented Theories of Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is the drive to perform an activity for its own sake, rather than for some separable consequence. This can manifest as deriving personal satisfaction and enjoyment from a task, or it can be rooted in a strong personal work ethic, where producing high-quality work is a reward in itself and aligns with one's core values.

Culture can significantly shape an individual's motivation. For instance, in collectivistic cultures, the primary driver for actions is often the well-being of the group, such as one's family, rather than individual achievement. This group-oriented focus encourages a broader understanding of behavior that incorporates both situational and cultural contexts.

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